Assimilation has always played a role in Jewish history. Traditional Jews are immediately identifiable and therefore easy targets of discrimination. Anti-Semitism denied to Jews the same rights, opportunities and privileges accorded to other Germans, and the temptation to join mainstream society was often very powerful. Pressure, both subtle and overt, was especially strong for Jews to give up those aspects of their religious life that separated them from the general population - kashrut, Shabbat and circumcision. Many roads were taken in the attempt to integrate - people changed their names, intermarried, celebrated Christmas, simply stopped considering themselves Jews or just adopted the dominant religion without any formalities. Of course, there were periods when such measures were not enough, and conversion to Christianity was encouraged, if not actually forced.
In the nineteenth century, as Jews were increasingly visible in the social and economic life of the country, many Germans wanted to establish a Christian state. Even after Emancipation (1871), Jews were still being denied the full benefits of citizenship. Many converted in order to further advance themselves professionally and be sure their children would have access to the best schools. Others were strongly nationalistic and wanted to be completely German. It cannot be denied that there were those who became believing Christians. Of the approximately 500,000 Jews living in Germany in the 1800s, between 20 and 30,000 left Judaism. Among them were many prominent, well-educated and prosperous individuals: Rachel Varnhagen, Heinrich Heine and the children of Moses Mendelssohn.
There were also Jews who wanted to maintain their religious life but found a new relationship with the surrounding society. They thought it was possible to acculturate but still have a positive Jewish identity. The Reform and Modern Orthodox Movements were born in Germany of this belief. Reform introduced decorum, the organ and German for sermons and hymns. More radical groups rejected the laws of the Talmud and held Sabbath services on Sunday. It was controversial from the start but attracted large numbers of followers. In reaction, Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch asserted that it was possible to be a good German and observant Jew at the same time. His slogan was Torah in the way of the world. There were also middle-of-the-road groups, Liberals and Conservatives, that represented the largest number of German Jews. In many cities, the community was divided to reflect the diversity of the population.
When the Nazis took over Germany and made anti-Semitism central to their program, most Jews, whatever their affiliation, felt themselves to be totally German. Many who had left the fold were shocked and surprised to discover they were even considered Jews; the Jewishness of their parents or grandparents had been so deeply buried. They soon discovered that it made no difference to the Nazis.
